Breast cancer
Breast cancer is the uncontrolled growth of epithelial cells lining ducts and lobules of the breast and is the most common cancer among non-smoking women. The main risk factors of breast cancer are a family history of breast cancer as well as mutations in the BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 genes, diet, exogenous hormones from oral contraception and postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy. Some symptoms of breast cancer are a hard-painless lump or swelling on the upper part of the breast.
Breast cancer screening, by mammography, is done for early detection of cancer. Treatment for breast cancer is dependent on the stage of the cancer; some treatments are surgery, where localised tumours are removed by a mastectomy, radiation therapy which can be applied to reduce recurrence, hormonal therapy, which includes medications such as tamoxifen which blocks the attachment of oestrogen to the receptor thus preventing cancer cells from getting the hormones required to grow and chemotherapy.
Ovarian cancer
One tumour that may develop in the reproductive system is ovarian cancer. The aetiology of ovarian cancer is poorly understood with some established risk factors for ovarian cancer being age, use of hormone replacement therapy and inherited defective versions of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. Furthermore, a consistent relationship has been observed between the risk of ovarian cancer and frequency and duration of ovulation and that early pregnancy reduces the risk. Although there is still some uncertainty over the tissue of origin of this cancer, the surface epithelium or epithelial lining of the fallopian tubes is the most likely source. Symptoms which are specific to this cancer are abdominal distension (pelvic mass), loss of appetite, abdominal pain and an increase in the frequency of urination
Determining the stage of ovarian cancer is very important in developing a treatment plan. At Stage 1, ovarian cancer is limited to one or both ovaries and can be detected by the serum tumour marker CA125. In Stage 2, ovarian cancer extends to the pelvis area. In Stage 3, ovarian cancer has spread to the abdominal region. In stage 4, ovarian cancer extends into the liver or to regions beyond the abdominal area.
The treatment used in the early stages of ovarian cancer is typically surgery which focuses on removing the tumour; whilst treatment in advanced stages includes chemotherapy based on carboplatin, which interferes DNA repair, and paclitaxel, a mitotic inhibitor which targets tubulin.
Cervical cancer
Cervical cancer is when abnormal cells in the lining of the cervix grow in an uncontrolled way, the main symptom is unusual bleeding from the vagina. Cervical screening aims to prevent cervical cancer from developing and is vital as the lag time between infection and the appearance of the disease can be 40-50 years. The PAP smear test is a cheap and safe screening method but requires a well-trained cytologist to identify early changes. Other screening techniques used are liquid cytology and DNA testing for human papillomavirus.
Prostate cancer
Another tumour that may develop in the reproductive system is prostate cancer. Although the cause of prostate cancer is unknown, some prominent factors that have been seen to increase the risk of developing it are age, family history, hormonal factors and obesity. The most common symptom that is experienced is urinary tract obstruction and the treatments of choice are radical prostatectomy or radiotherapy.
Testicular cancer
Furthermore, the most common cancer in men aged 15-35 is testicular cancer. This cancer is typically a teratoma, of mixed origin, and has many established risk factors including undescended testicles, fertility problems, family history and a previous testicular cancer. Common symptoms of this cancer are a painful mass in the testicles, a lump of swelling in the testicles and a heavy scrotum.
There are three main stages of testicular cancer. In the earliest stage, stage 1, the cancer is only in the testicle. In stage 2 the cancer cells have spread into nearby lymph nodes, either in the abdomen or pelvis. In the final stage, the cancer has spread to distant lymph nodes, for example near the collarbone, or to other organs such as the lungs. A treatment for this cancer is adjuvant chemotherapy with cisplatin etoposide and bleomycin, this induces DNA damage leading to a 95% survival rate.
Pharma and Biotech Advances 